London History (1100-1415)

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William's Legacy

William was succeeded by his son also named William, but dubbed William Rufus. The younger William's reign was blighted by conspiracy and intrigue often involving his brother Robert, who had inherited the title of Duke of Normandy from his father. In reality, William ended up achieving very little, spending much of his time fending off discontent from subjects. Unsurprisingly, his reign ended in suspicious circumstances after a hunting accident, whereupon his younger brother Henry succeeded him.

Henry had seen first hand how William had struggled to contain the unrest and conspiracies against him. He therefore tried to placate both the Church and the nobility by passing new laws and giving them increased rights. He also looked to the influential Anglo-Saxons for support. To strengthen his position still further, he married Mathilda, who was a descendent not only of Edward the confessor (thus there was a link to the Anglo-Saxon Kings) but the daughter of Malcolm Camore a Scottish King. He therefore hoped he could count on the support of the Scots in times of difficulty.

Henry's main threat now was not from disquiet within his own Kingdom, but from his brother Robert who wanted the English throne for himself. Although Robert stirred up unrest, which did take time for Henry to suppress, he eventually crossed the Channel in 1106 and took on Robert at the Battle of Tinchebrai. Emerging the victor, Henry returned to London in triumph and promptly imprisoned Robert for his treachery. With Henry now ruling not just over England, but Normandy too, he directed the administration of Normandy from London. The fact that many Anglo-Saxons had fought on Henry's side also helped unify England and consolidated his position on the throne still further.

Despite a major setback when his only son was drowned after his ship was wrecked on the way back from Normandy, thus leaving him without a male heir, Henry's reign was relatively successful. He consolidated the position of the King as "Protector of the People" and created the post of Exchequer to improve the collection of taxes and attempt to bring county sheriffs, who collected the revenues, under the control of the Crown. In many ways these reforms heralded the start of an embryonic Civil Service.

When Henry died in 1135, he had expected the throne of England to be passed to his daughter Mathilda. But instead, a number of powerful nobles moved to reassert their power and influence, which had previously been tempered by Henry. Even more pressing was the problem of whether a Queen would be accepted on the throne while there were male claimants (albeit with lesser blood claims) to become King. Mathilda's main rival was Henry's nephew Stephen. Eventually, with the much needed backing of the Church, Stephen was crowned King on 25 December 1135 in preference to Mathilda. With her supporters angered by the coronation, the seeds were sown for what eventually became a civil war as Mathilda challenged Stephen's legitimacy to the crown. Interestingly, Mathilda was supported by a powerful noble, Robert of Gloucester, who was in fact the bastard son of Henry I. For a time Stephen was deposed and Mathilda took the crown, now supported by the Church who had switched their allegiance. Her reign however, which brought untold misery, strife and civil war was short-lived. Support shifted back to Stephen who reclaimed his crown within four years.

Although Stephen remained on the throne until 1153, the lack of a male heir meant that the crown passed to Mathilda's son Henry (Henry I's grandson), known as Henry Plantagenet. In stark contrast to that of his mother, Henry Plantagenet's reign brought great benefits to England. He managed not only to bring a greater stability to the country, but also strengthened the position of monarchy and Exchequer. He also held the title of Duke of Normandy which, to a point, also gave England an overseas dominion (although the Normans would not have seen it that way) and acquired possessions in France, notably Anjou and Brittany. England was now more or less a unified entity and started to influence events abroad. Thus, London became an even more important centre for trade, commerce and the Royal Court.

One of his greatest achievements was the establishment and consolidation of English Common Law, a system that endures to this day. There were, of course, some setbacks along the way. Probably the most well known are Henry's problems with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket. The two had been friends, with Henry appointing him as Archbishop in attempt to curb the power of the Church in affairs of state. However, once appointed, Thomas Becket became a thorn in Henry's side and sought to maintain, even increase the power of the Church in England. A number of prominent excommunications made by Becket brought matters to a head. Indeed, even the Church had become extremely worried by Becket's actions. Soon after, in 1164, he effectively pledged sole loyalty to God rather than his sovereign, which bought him into open conflict with the King. After a period of exile, when even the Pope could barely support Becket's conduct, the Archbishop returned to Canterbury in 1170, while Henry was away in Normandy. Rumours that Becket was planning rebellion reached the King and whilst in a rage, he effectively stated that he wanted him dead. This was overheard by four Knights who, keen to find favour with their monarch, returned to Canterbury and murdered the Archbishop in the Cathedral.

It appeared to many that Henry had ordered the Archbishop to be murdered and Becket became something of a martyr. For two years or so Henry had continued difficulty with the Church but, following a number of public displays of penance, the position stabilised. He was, however, unable to curb the power of the Church, who were able to retain a high degree of independence from royal authority.

In another attempt to improve relations with the Pope, Henry invaded Ireland in 1171 and by 1172 was Lord of Ireland. By adding Ireland to his dominions Henry further increased his standing in Europe. Indeed, dynastic marriages involving his daughters enhanced his position all the more, with Henry eventually becoming the second most powerful ruler in the Christian world (behind the Holy Roman Emperor). Towards the end of his reign however, there was more turbulence, caused primarily by his four sons, each of whom looked to stake a claim to the succession. Indeed, Henry died in 1189 whilst fighting against his son Richard and King Philip of France.

It was Richard who eventually succeeded his father to become Richard I. More commonly referred to as "Richard the Lionheart" he is also one of England's most famous monarchs. With a reign that lasted for 10 years, much of his time was spent abroad fighting in the Crusades (an endeavour that placed great strain on England's finances). Revenues for the campaign were raised by new taxes and levies which Richard imposed as he fought to drive the "infidel" from Jerusalem. Although a brave and clever warrior, his opponent Saladin was an equally wily campaigner. Indeed, the two - who shared a mutual respect for each other - had met to discuss the possible partitioning of the city after Christian forces had advanced to within 12 miles of Jerusalem. However, the Crusade, which Richard had spearheaded, eventually faltered due to disunity among the allied leaders. On his way home, the King suffered an even greater set back after being captured by Duke Leopold of Austria in Vienna. With England in a near state of anarchy, the huge ransom that was being demanded only added to the troubles - almost bankrupting the country overnight. Intriguingly, his brother John, who had been conniving behind the scenes to increase his power in England while Richard was away, offered Richard's captors a bounty to pass him on to his enemy Philip of France. However, the Church and nobility rallied to pay the King's ransom and John, sensing his chance had gone, played the part of the dutiful brother - whilst also creaming off a large percentage of the revenue collected in his lands for this purpose. Behind the scenes though, John would continue to scheme against his brother.

Although Richard returned home to great fanfare and celebration, he could not stay long as the French were threatening his possessions across the Channel. During his long absences, Richard had left the Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter to run affairs of state. In this time, Walter granted new rights of self-government to London and other principle cities, which gave them rights equalling if not exceeding those of the counties. Changes to the system of law were also made. Most important of all, the title of Mayor of London was introduced as part of these changes (with the first Mayor of London believed to have been Henry Fitzailwin in 1191).

Richard continued to fight in France and in 1199 was fatally wounded whilst laying siege to the Castle at Chaluz. His brother John got his wish and was crowned as his successor.

King John and the Magna Carta

King John's coronation in Westminster Abbey was not greeted with the same enthusiasm as that of his brother Richard, primarily because many were aware that he had tried to undermine his brother. Considering John is known as the mastermind behind arguably the most important document in English history - the Magna Carta - the early years of his reign were pretty catastrophic. By 1205, the King had lost all his possessions in France and was also forced to hand over Normandy. In the same year, the Pope excommunicated the whole country after a squabble with King John over the appointment of a new Archbishop of Canterbury. The excommunication lasted six years and during this time all churches were closed to worshippers. Worse still, it also looked as if a French invasion of England was imminent. And, to cap it all the Barons, fed up by the King's continued demands for money to fund the war against France, grew increasingly restless bringing the threat of civil war ever closer.

However, out of this disaster emerged the Magna Carta, a document that primarily set out the relationship between the King and his nobles, although it also stated that no one, not even monarch was above the law. Consequently, in future, anyone arrested or imprisoned would be judged under English law.

King John had little chance to see how the provisions of the Magna Carta worked in practice though, as his time was consumed with the rebellion raging throughout the land. At the time, London had sided with the King's opponents. Indeed, a number of barons who had gathered in London asked the French King's son, Louis, to take the throne. During all this turmoil, John tried to quell the unrest and the situation started to improve. However, he later succumbed to illness on 18 October 1216 while campaigning.

Although, the situation was still unstable, John's grandson was crowned Henry III on 28 October 1216 at the tender age of nine. Fortunately, William Marshal, who'd been a faithful servant to Henry's father, Henry the II, became a "Regent" on behalf of the boy King and with the support of the Church put down the rebellion.

For the next ten years, until Henry III was able to rule as monarch in his own right, a group of loyal men, including William Marshall, the Archbishop of Canterbury and Stephen Langton effectively ruled the Kingdom. Collectively they managed to create a stable situation for Henry III to inherit in 1227, but soon afterwards, unrest was fuelled again as the English Barons saw a number of foreigners appointed to influential posts in Henry's court.

After a short rebellion in 1233-34, Henry removed the foreign courtiers and the situation was calmed. In London, he also began a reconstruction of Westminster Abbey, first and foremost out of respect to Edward the Confessor, but to also confirm his religious convictions to the Church (hence maintaining their powerful backing against his enemies).

Although for the next two decades there were no major rebellions, Henry's relationship with the nobility became strained. In 1258 a Parliament of sorts came into being (from the Provisions of Oxford) comprising the King and a council of 15 nobles, who would meet three times a year. The members, who had not been chosen by the King met to discuss the issues of the day and decisions were made by a majority voting system.

Certain barons, however, including the powerful Simon de Montfort wanted to exert more control over the King through Parliament. De Montfort also influenced Henry's son Edward who, like many royal offspring in the past, was not averse to conspiring against his father in order to strengthen his position for a future claim to the throne. Although Edward was later exiled, Henry was unable to stop the kingdom sliding into civil war and a number of powerful barons, with de Montfort at the fore, took up arms against the King.

At the time, many in London were sympathetic to de Montfort and his followers. Indeed, between 1264-65, following the capture of both King Henry and his son Edward at the battle of Lewes, de Montfort was the de facto King. However, as his aim had only been to exercise control over monarch through Parliament, rather than become sovereign himself, the situation began to spiral out of control. As more of the powerful barons rallied to Henry's side, his son Edward managed to escape from his captors and raised an army to take on de Montfort. Before long, the tide had turned with the King eventually defeating de Montfort who died in battle at Evesham. Those nobles who had supported de Montfort lost their titles and land and, for a time, continued to wage a small guerrilla war against Henry. Eventually, the situation stabilized and the King recommenced Parliamentary meetings. However, despite appearances, he was now firmly in control.

Edward I and Unification of the British Isles

In 1272, Henry died and was buried in the newly rebuilt Westminster Abbey. With his son Edward succeeding him on the throne, Edward I proved to be a ruthless King, using manipulation and propaganda effectively against his enemies. For example, to court popularity with his nobles he actively encouraged anti-Semitism against the Jews. However, despite his appreciation of dirty politics, Edward faced rebellion in Wales and also uprising in Scotland, led by William Wallace (as portrayed in the film Braveheart and described below).

For all his scheming and skulduggery, Edward was actually a keen administrator and sought to ensure that the country was ruled efficiently. In particular, the Exchequer at Westminster was an important part of the administrative process. With responsibility for collecting increasingly high property taxes, monies were used to help pay nobles for troops to fight the Welsh rebellion in 1294, and maintain forces in Scotland (where the situation was becoming ever more serious). Edward also faced ongoing troubles with the French. By now, a number of powerful barons were withholding their taxes in protest. Indeed, while Edward was overseas in the Low Countries, a group of nobles entered London asking for taxes to be reduced and the articles of Magna Carta to be respected by the King. Edward, rather fearful of this renewed challenge to his authority accepted, effectively ending his ability to tax nobles without restriction, and thus making it more difficult to sustain a campaign in France. This did, however, have a benefit (if it was seen as such at the time) in that the King was able to turn his attention away from the continent to events in England and the British Isles.

To his credit, Edward was probably the first English king to make a serious attempt to unify the British Isles under one monarch. In 1284 Edward effectively conquered the Welsh by introducing a new type of warrior, the longbow-man (who would become the mainstay of the English fighting forces until the musket/gunpowder made them obsolete). The effectiveness of longbow-men at the time cannot be overstated. A modern day equivalent would be the superiority that a heavily armed jet fighter enjoys over a tank.

Once Wales had been secured, Edward looked north to Scotland. The Scots had been an irritant to successive English kings for centuries, with Northern England frequently turned into a battle zone as they made incursions down into England. Further, the Scots had also become allies of France which enraged Edward all the more. Consequently, his army undertook a brutal campaign in Scotland, which inspired the Scots to rebel under William Wallace. However, Wallace was decisively beaten at Falkirk in 1298 (a defeat which owed much to the decimation of the Scots army by the English Longbow-men) and, although he waged a guerrilla war in the Scottish Highlands, Wallace was eventually taken prisoner in 1305. Following a trial at Westminster Hall Wallace was executed, although his death failed to bring about peace in Scotland as the Scots rallied around another inspirational figure - Robert the Bruce. Indeed, it was on his way to confront the Bruce in Scotland that Edward I died in 1307.

The heir to the throne was Edward I's son who, on his coronation, became Edward II. It's probably fair to say that Edward II was England's first openly gay monarch and this caused great consternation and resentment among the nobility. The subject of Edward's affection was Piers Gaveston who exerted a great deal of influence over the King. For instance, when Edward went abroad to marry the French Princess, Isabella, Gaveston was appointed "keeper of the Realm" during his absence. This infuriated the nobles who, on the King's return, forced him to banish Gaveston.

After a time exiled in Ireland and Flanders, Gaveston returned but was eventually murdered by the Earl of Warwick. The murder initially had a devastating effect on Edward, as Gaveston was undoubtedly closest in his affections. However, he recovered and in a move to reassert his domestic authority, moved against the troublesome Scots led by Robert the Bruce. With an army totalling 25,000 men (of which around 3000 were knights in heavy armour) Edward enjoyed a significant numerical advantage over the Bruce who could only muster about 10,000 men. On paper at least, the English forces therefore looked the more likely to succeed. However, the Bruce was by far the more accomplished strategist, putting his military expertise to good use at the battle of Bannockburn on 24th June 1314. Any Scot can probably go into minute detail about the events that occurred on this day - suffice to say it was a disaster for the English who despite great bravery, were totally outfought. Even the threat from Edward's feared longbow-men was neutralised. By day's end many English nobles lay dead on the battlefield, while Robert seized his advantage and led his troops into the north of England where they caused mayhem.

The situation was a disaster for Edward. With his authority collapsing around him, the nobility saw an opportunity to destroy the King's power base and promptly set about plotting his downfall. One of these groups included his wife Isabella, who was aware that Edward had started a liaison with a young noble named Hugh Despenser. She in turn began an affair with Roger Mortimer, a noble who had fled to France. Now bitter and seeking revenge, Isabella joined Mortimer and her young son Edward, before launching a rebellion against her husband. By gaining support from a good number of disaffected nobles, they were easily able to depose Edward, who was brutally murdered in 1327.

Mortimer and Isabella effectively ruled England for the next three years, for although her son had been crowned Edward III, he was a minor and therefore not able to rule in his own right. At this time, England was still very unstable with various factions vying for influence. By 1328, the Scots had also effectively been given their independence. And, although there was widespread anger in England at the decision, disunity among the nobles prevented any major rebellion. Hatred of the young King's mother Isabella and her lover Mortimer, however, became even more intense. Fortunately, by 1330, after becoming a father at the age of seventeen, Edward felt ready to assume the throne in his own right. This was made easier for him when men loyal to the crown seized Mortimer and Isabella while they were at Nottingham. Mortimer was executed for his role in the murder of Edward II and although Isabella's life was spared by her son, she was virtually under house arrest for the rest of her life.

The accession of Edward III actually coincided with growing domestic changes and Parliament gradually assumed a greater importance in the governing of the realm. In stark contrast to his father, Edward III was very much a "hands on" king and he sought not only to deal with the troublesome Scots, but to also re-establish his position in France. Indeed, the French and Scots were allying closely with one another to increasingly agitate the English. In 1333, Edward scored a decisive victory at Halidon Hill and was able to bring about territorial concessions from the Scots. The Scottish King, David II, fled to France the following year and stayed at the French Court, encouraging them to support continued rebellion north of the border. This French involvement infuriated Edward III still further, and at the first opportunity he decided to take matters into his own hands.

The chance presented itself by way of a dispute over the wool trade in the Low Countries. Wool exports to the mills of Flanders were probably the most valuable source of income to England. Indeed, much of this trade flowed through the Port of London. However, the nobles in Flanders were influenced by the French and sought to restrict such trade. This infuriated the wealthy English wool merchants and gave Edward III an opportunity to impose an embargo of all English wool exports in 1336. This served as a catalyst for an uprising in the Netherlands against the French supporting nobles (who were the scapegoats for this sudden collapse in the wool merchants' livelihoods).

Of course, the English supported the uprising enthusiastically and Edward decided to capitalise on the unrest by reviving his claim to the throne of France, another move that was greeted with great domestic enthusiasm. After a number of communications with the French King, Philip VI, Edward dispatched a huge fleet (he had built up the English fleet considerably since becoming king) to France and after decimating Philip's navy, disembarked with his troops to begin a long, drawn out campaign. Little did anyone know however, that the campaign proved to be the opening salvo in the "Hundred Years War".

After a number of skirmishes across France during the next decade, English forces actually besieged Paris in 1346. However, the numerical advantage that the French enjoyed eventually led to an English withdrawal. The French, keen to exact some sort of revenge, blocked the route back to the coast and the two armies squared up with each other at Crécy. Employing superior battle tactics that utilised the English longbow-men to great effect, Edward routed their forces with huge numbers of French nobles and knights slaughtered on the battlefield. English losses by comparison were light. Edward further capitalised on the French disarray by laying siege to Calais, which he later starved into submission the following year. Once captured, Calais remained in English hands for the next two centuries.

To round off a momentous year, Edward fought a crucial battle against the Scots at Neville's Cross and captured the Scot's King David II who had returned from France. With him safely imprisoned in the Tower of London, Scottish resistance was all but nullified. Edward was thus able to return to London, a bustling city which now had a population exceeding 50,000, in a relatively secure position. However, the situation in London and the rest of the British Isles was to change completely two years later as plague struck.

The Plague, which first arrived in 1348 and decimated the kingdom, was carried by rats with one in three of the population perishing from the disease. London in particular was badly hit as dwellings lacked basic hygiene (effluent flowed in open 'sewers' in the street) and were built close together in narrow streets - making it easier for the disease to spread. No one, from the wealthiest noble to the lowliest peasant was immune from the disease. As a consequence, the country became impoverished with outbreaks of the Plague recurring repeatedly over the coming decades. Tragically, it even affected Edward III when his wife Philippa succumbed to the disease in 1369.

While the Plague ravaged England, the war against France dragged on. Indeed Edward III's son captured the French King John II after a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Poitiers. Brought back to England and imprisoned in the Tower, it was Edward's intention to keep him there until territories and a huge ransom were given over to secure his release. Unfortunately for Edward, he never received the money which was desperately needed to finance his campaign in France (even though King John was eventually released). By this time, Parliament was also growing increasingly unwilling to grant funds to finance the war. Presiding over a declining and diseased ravaged kingdom, Edward's influence was steadily waning, while Parliament's role in affairs of state was increasing day by day. Edward died a sick and lonely monarch in 1377, although he was still held in far greater esteem than many of his predecessors.

Edward III was succeeded by Richard II, the ten-year-old son of Edward's own eldest son, Edward "The Black Prince", who should have been next in line to the throne (but for his untimely death before his father). With Richard II too young to take the throne, another of Edward III's sons, John of Gaunt acted as Regent. John had a reputation for cronyism, being a manipulator and anti-Church as well as using Parliament for his own ends. Outside of the Royal Court, the country continued to suffer, as nobles and the populous in general were burdened by taxation which helped fund the war against France.

During his Regency, a poll tax was introduced to collect even more funds. As with all poll taxes through England's history, the attempt to levy additional revenue in this way was detested and there was much disquiet. This soon manifested itself by way of a full-blown peasant's revolt, which began in Kent, and gathered apace with large crowds heading towards London. Led by the charismatic Wat Tyler, the protest enjoyed a fair degree of support from peasants in London and consequently they were able to enter The City without difficulty. For a while any semblance of authority was lost as the protestors ran amok and murder and rioting ensued. However, the King, though only fourteen years old, faced the protestors at Smithfield and listened to Tyler as he read out the peasants' demands. Although it would appear that Richard agreed to grant many of Tyler's wishes, a melee erupted during which the Mayor of London, William Wallworth, mortally wounded Tyler who fled in panic. In turn, the rioters also melted away, though some were later caught and hanged. Tyler himself was found hiding in St Bartholomew’s Hospital, whereupon he was promptly taken back to Smithfield and executed. Although Richard later reneged on his verbal agreement, Parliament failed to pursue Tyler's cause further, in part because plans to levy the poll tax were later withdrawn.

While the young King had faced down the revolt, it was a good indication of the discontent that existed against both monarchy and Parliament. The King soon took over from the unpopular John of Gaunt and sought to impose his own authority on the kingdom. However, by appointing personal friends to both the Royal Court and King's Council (and instigating changes to the Civil Service), Richard alienated a sizeable group of nobles who saw this as a curb on their own influence. Several of them, chiefly Henry Bolingbrooke and Thomas of Woodstock took up arms against the King in protest. The insurgents initially gained the upper hand, marching on London and summarily executing a number of the King's close friends including Simon Brember. However, after a period of uncertainty Richard had, by 1389, managed to re-establish his authority. For the next few years' stability returned and the position with the French also improved following his marriage to the French Princess Isabella in 1394 (daughter of King Charles VI).

However, just as the century was coming to a close Richard committed a fatal error. He confiscated the lands due to be inherited by Henry Bolingbrooke, who took up arms once again while Richard was away campaigning in Ireland. By the time he returned, Henry had gathered overwhelming support. Richard was forced to abdicate and was also imprisoned at Pontefract Castle. Consequently, in 1399, the throne passed to Bolingbrooke who was to reign as Henry IV. His tenure was also to be the first of the Lancastrian kings.

In many people's eyes, Henry's accession to the throne had been achieved by treason against a ruling monarch. He therefore had to work quickly to consolidate his tenuous position, while many of those who had supported him decided to exact a high reward for their services.

Although some nobles tried to re-instate Richard, his death in 1400 from starvation put an end to this threat. However, there was still much discontent against the new King both from the nobility and the growing Lollard movement. The Lollards were religious reformers who resented the total control the Catholic Church had over religious affairs. In particular, they disagreed with the practice that the Bible was not available to the general populous and that the only way to hear the testaments was in church. Moreover, they believed the Bible, which now had an English translation, should be freely available. Naturally the Catholic Church saw this as a threat to their power and influence and pressed the King to brand the Lollards as heretics. The King consented (probably to maintain the support of the Church at a crucial period) and the Statute De Heretico Comburendo, introduced in 1401, allowed those judged as heretics to be burned.

To compound his problems, the Scots and Welsh seized the opportunity to rebel, and the Welsh in particular, under the inspired leadership of Owen Glendower, caused much unrest. In 1403, Henry faced a rebellion within England, led by the Percy family. This was temporarily suppressed and Henry "Hotspur" Percy, the leader of the uprising was killed during the battle of Shrewsbury. Despite this, his troubles with the Percy family were not over and in 1405 Henry Percy's father, seeking to avenge his son's death, organised and led a more serious uprising which was barely suppressed. One of the rebels was the Archbishop of York who Henry subsequently had executed. This brought criticism from the Church, but luckily, The Catholic Church was in schism with two Popes, one in Rome (supported by the English Church), the other in Avignon. Henry had remained loyal to Rome, but would have switched his support to the breakaway Papacy in Avignon had the English Church caused him difficulty. Indeed, the execution of such a major figure in the English Church probably warranted excommunication but because of the schism, Henry only faced muted criticism.

By 1408 the domestic situation had calmed but Henry IV was only to reign for five more years and died in 1413. He was succeeded by his son, who was to reign as Henry V. Coming to the throne at a time where there was domestic calm, Henry soon realised there was little unity in the country and, more seriously, that the nation's coffers were empty. He therefore planned to rally the country with a campaign against France. At the same time, he sought to build bridges with Parliament and the discontented nobles and by the time he left for France in 1415, the majority of the country had rallied behind him.

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