London History (Roman)

Sponsor's Link: Heathrow Airport Parking - Visit Park and Go for car parking at London's major airports

You are in: London Main Page » History Main Page » P1

The Roman Era

Whilst archaeological excavations have uncovered evidence of periodic settlement around London dating back to the prehistoric era, it was the Romans who first kick started and shaped the development of London into becoming the sprawling city that we know today.

By 56BC, with the Roman legions under Julius Caesar all but conquering the Gauls, his attentions turned to subduing the Britons and Celts across the Channel in Britain. As both tribes had already sided with the Gauls against the Romans, Caesar was well aware that, unless they were subjugated, each would continue to act as a destabilizing force within the Empire. Caesar's strategy also extended to the Druidic religions (who were already a well-established and influential force in Britain), as the Roman's were extremely fearful of their mystical and superstitious rites.

Having organised a sizeable invasion fleet, Caesar set sail a year later from Boulogne. Well aware of his plans, the Britons massed their forces at Dover and waited patiently for the Roman legions to arrive. A combination of bad weather (and the unnerving sight of thousands of aggressive Britons ready to wage battle) led Caesar to land further up the south coast at Albion. After some initial difficulties, his soldiers managed to establish a foothold ashore, but continued to be harried by the Britons who were determined to repel their Roman invaders. Consequently, Caesar decided to withdraw, taking with him plunder and prisoners. A year later, Caesar tried once more, but found resistance even more stubborn than on his first campaign. As this second foray also coincided with a revolt in Gaul, Caesar was again forced to abandon his expansion plans. Indeed, he was never to return and it was only in 43AD (under the Emperor Claudius) that Rome attempted another invasion.

This time Claudius's legions faired better as the Britons were taken completely by surprise. Divisions among the Briton tribes also impaired their fighting ability and the Romans were able to exploit this tactical advantage to the full. With both the Britons and Celts forced largely to fight an ongoing guerrilla war, the Romans managed to consolidate their position in south-east England and Anglia. The seat of Roman power was at this time Colchester (Camulodunum), although they had also formed a settlement in London (Londinium) which made use of the Thames as a port facility. The river was deeper and much wider in Roman times and effective use of the tidal current meant that shipping could travel a long way inland, thereby giving much needed logistical benefits to the hard pressed legions. As great innovators, the Romans also built a fixed wooden crossing across the Thames near what is now London Bridge. Archaeological evidence also suggests that an additional crossing point near to Lambeth Palace - where the Thames is quite shallow - was also in use. Port activity, which was centred on what is today the Pool of London, was largely confined to military operations, although it's clear that a fair degree of commercial trade was also taking place here.

Despite their gradual consolidation over increasingly large parts of Britain, the Romans suffered a major setback in AD55 when Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni tribe led her people in a rebellion against their rule. With a number of other tribes joining her effort, she promptly headed for Colchester, where her forces plundered the city and set about massacring its inhabitants. The same fate also befell London in AD60, the task made easier this time by the tactical withdrawal of Roman military forces from the area (the Roman General in command, Suetonius, wisely realised that his 15,000 strong army could not hope to defeat Boudicca's forces, which now numbered over 200,000).

Although still reeling from the massacre of the Ninth Legion by Boudicca's increasingly confident Britons, Suetonius gathered together his forces to confront Boudicca on open ground in the Midlands. The choice of battlefield, which allowed the Roman legions to make maximum use of their superior military tactics and training, eventually led to a remarkable victory (despite Boudicca's huge numerical advantage). Indeed, the battle effectively marked the end of organised resistance to Roman rule, although sporadic small-scale uprisings did occur.

With Boudicca out of the way, the Romans, under the Governorship of Julius Classicianus, rebuilt and developed London as a centre for trade and commerce. The city became increasingly prosperous as a result, with Roman villas, temples and bathing complexes standing shoulder to shoulder with more grandiose buildings such as a forum, basilica and amphitheatre. By 200AD, a giant wall (which stood approximately 7 metres high) had also been constructed around the city, serving as a robust and impenetrable defensive shield. London had also become the administrative centre for the southern half of Britain (with York taking on a similar role for the north) and its prosperity and status continued to grow.

All this changed, however, in the next two hundred years, as over expansion and internal strife in Europe led to the gradual disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire. With evidence to suggest that squabbles and in-fighting were not confined solely to the continent (as doubtless both Roman factions and Romanised Britons recognised the importance of London, not only trade-wise, but for being the financial centre of the Island too) Rome's grip on Britain had, by the late 4th-century loosened dramatically. With frequent incursions by foreign tribes at this time, archaeological evidence suggests that England's Roman rulers were relying on significant numbers of hired (foreign) mercenaries to keep them in power. Of course, this increasingly unstable situation eventually led to the Romans finally abandoning Britain in 410AD, giving rise to a period of history known as the Dark Ages.

The Dark Ages

Compared to other periods of history, comparatively little is known about the era described as the Dark Ages (hence the name) and what information there is comes from pitifully few sources. It appears that commercial activity did continue in London, albeit at a markedly reduced level initially. The Dark Ages also saw an influx of Angles and Saxons from Germany who became the dominant tribes in Britain. By settling in other towns and cities, many of the new settlements eventually gained a higher status at London's expense. The city did, however, expand slowly westward away from the old Roman city, which was left to decay over time. This new development also moved the focus of commercial activity further afield to what is today The Strand/Charing Cross. With evidence to suggest that merchants arrived here from all over the known world, it became a melting pot of cultures, a characteristic that is still true of London today.

However, during the 9th-century, the Saxon dominance of Britain was threatened by the Vikings, who had made a number of violent raids into costal areas towards the end of the previous century. This time, Viking forces arrived in far greater numbers and gradually fought their way down towards London - which they effectively ended up occupying by 872. Although for a number of years the city seemed to be under no overall control, the Saxons, under the leadership of King Alfred the Great (who for a time was forced into hiding), eventually managed to retake London for good in 886. By rebuilding what was the old Roman city, and strengthening the existing defensive walls, they also set about constructing new port facilities to increase trade. Consequently, throughout the 9th and 10th centuries London began to prosper again under the English kings, who were also spending increasing periods of time in the city.

The Viking threat was still very real, however, with their forces returning in 980 during the reign of the Anglo-Saxon King Aethelred (popularly referred to as Aethelred the Unready). This time though it was the town of Thanet, not far from London, that proved to be the focus for Viking aggression. In an attempt to buy peace with their marauding forces, Aethelred offered the Viking leaders huge sums of money rather than confront them by force of arms. The Vikings, who saw this as easy bounty, took the money and returned home for a short time, before threatening the English once more a year or two later (knowing that in all likelihood they'd be bought off yet again). This strange state of affairs continued for a number of years until it became ever more difficult for Aethelred to gather money and pay the Vikings off. Eventually, realising that the Saxons would have to take up arms, Aethelred's soldiers first set about massacring a number of Viking settlers who had established themselves in the south of England. Of course, such actions were not without consequence, as vicious Viking reprisals took place almost immediately, followed by a bloody conflict that ensued for a further four years. It was only when Aethelred agreed to pay another huge bounty that a partial peace was achieved in 1011. Even this was short-lived, however, as the Vikings returned yet again within two years. This time, after being besieged in London, Aethelred was forced to flee across the Channel and seek sanctuary with the Duke of Normandy (who's sister Emma he had married in 1002). Interestingly, the marriage now gave the Normans a claim to the English throne which, as we will learn later, they would exercise in the not too distant future.

Although Aethelred eventually returned to England to lead the Saxon armies (with his son Edmund joining him) within five years they were both dead. This marked the end of the Anglo-Saxon line of kings for a time, with the throne of England passing to the Viking King - Canute. Even this proved to be a transitional phase though, with a dynastic line that lasted only 30 years. For, following the death of Canute's son Harthacanute, the Anglo-Saxon Edward (the Confessor) took to the throne.

In marked contrast to the small-scale development of London under Viking rule, Edward immediately set up court at Westminster, which was entirely separate from the City of London. Reconstructing Westminster Abbey - which had been established in the previous century by a group of Benedictine monks - he also engaged architects in the building of the Palace of Westminster, part of which still remains within the Houses of Parliament today. Edward's reign lasted until his death in 1066 (see below) whereupon he was laid to rest in a shrine within Westminster Abbey.

1066 and William the Conqueror

With Edward's death, there was no clear successor to the throne of England. Two claims were lodged, the first being from William of Normandy, who was his cousin through the marriage of Aethelred and Emma. It is believed that while he was alive, Edward had acknowledged his claim to succeed to the throne. However, William had a rival by way of Edward's brother in law, Harold, who held vast estates of land and wielded unrivalled power and influence throughout England. Consequently, following a decision by the Royal Council, Harold was crowned King in Westminster Abbey. William's disappointment at not becoming sovereign immediately fuelled his desire to take the throne by force. At the same time (and to make things even more complicated for Harold) another claimant, Harold Hardrada - a descendent of the Viking king Canute - had landed on the Humber with a sizeable army.

Things were looking grim for King Harold. Setting out from London with a makeshift army (many of his troops had to be gathered during his march north) he faced a belligerent Viking force at Stamford Bridge near York. To his great credit, the Viking's were put to flight after a fierce battle and their leader, Hardrada was killed. Harold's celebrations were short lived though as William was about to land at Hastings. Leading what was by now an exhausted and numerically weakened army, Harold therefore had no alternative but to march his troops straight back down to the south coast.

Landing at Hastings on 28th September 1066, William spent the time between Harold's arrival preparing his forces for the coming battle. Impressively, Harold's men marched from York to London, a distance of over 200 miles, in just seven days. After a brief stop in the city to muster extra troops, he then made his way down to Hastings.

On October 14th, the two armies joined in battle. Despite having a numerical advantage, particularly in cavalry, the Normans were unable to break through the Saxon defensive line which had been drawn up on a slope. Indeed, at one stage rumours that William had been killed almost broke the Norman will to fight. However, it was a moment of indiscipline by Harold's troops that decided the battle's outcome. With the Normans feigning retreat, a large portion of his men broke from behind their hitherto impenetrable shield wall in anticipation of delivering a decisive blow. The bluff soon meant the Saxons were cut to pieces by William's cavalry and, despite a heroic stand by Harold's household troops, the Normans carried the day and Harold lay dead on the battlefield. There was little now to stop William from claiming the crown and despite some resistance during his march to London (for which William exacted swift retribution), he became King on Christmas day 1066, being crowned in Westminster Abbey.

William "the Conqueror" moved quickly to consolidate his position on the throne and in the process, London's status was significantly enhanced. William was well-aware that he had little support outside London. Indeed, it took many years for him to secure his position in England. Wisely, he immediately authorised the construction of the Tower of London, partly to protect the city and its vital port facilities but also to signal his dominance over the population. The King also moved to revive London as a dominant commercial centre.

Despite the strengthening of his position in London and the surrounding areas, much of the country remained hostile to the new King and, consequently, he was only able to impose an order of sorts by building formidable castles with strong garrisons (at strategic points throughout England).

In 1085, after almost two decades on the throne, William was still finding it difficult to collect taxes from his subjects (which were vital to maintain his army and finance the building of the strategic castles that he needed) and there continued to be squabbles over titles and land ownership. He therefore ordered a "census" of the wealth and property of the country which is known as the Domesday Book. Providing an unprecedented and extremely detailed picture of England at that time, it is said that everything that had an owner, down to even the last pig or chicken was carefully recorded.

As well as giving William an idea of the income he could expect to receive, the Domesday Book also served to identify those people who held the greatest power and influence in England (ensuring that he would have sound knowledge of where any internal threats to his throne and authority might come from).

However, despite his astute political maneuvering, William's reign was only to last a further two years as he died in 1087 from injuries sustained while campaigning in France. His legacy had, by then, left a major mark on both England and London. The city was now the seat of power and had thrived during his reign. Moreover, he had changed the political landscape of the country by introducing new laws and allowing the influence of the church to increase significantly.

You are in: London Main Page » History Main Page » P1

Check out our discount offers for London Attractions and Restaurants!